Saudi Arabia

TL;DR. Saudi Arabia is young as a state (founded 1932) but ancient as a place. It is the birthplace of Islam and holds its two holiest cities, Mecca and Medina. The modern kingdom rests on an 18th-century pact between the Saud family and the strict Wahhabi religious movement, and on the vast oil wealth discovered in 1938, which made it rich, powerful, and a close partner of the United States. Long socially conservative, it is now in a fast, top-down transformation under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, while remaining an absolute monarchy.

Key takeaways

• Three threads explain Saudi Arabia: the birth of Islam, the Saud-Wahhabi pact of 1744, and oil.
• It is the only country named after its ruling family, the Al Saud.
• Its global weight comes from oil (it leads OPEC) and from custody of Mecca and Medina.
• Its defining alliance is with the United States; its defining rivalry is with Iran.
• It is changing fast socially and economically, but politically it is still an absolute monarchy with tight limits on dissent.

Main events at a glance

The land and the deep past

Most of the Arabian Peninsula is desert and dry plateau. Before Islam it was home to nomadic Bedouin tribes, oasis farmers, and caravan-trading towns. Mecca was already a trading hub and a pilgrimage site centered on a shrine, the Kaaba, before Islam. Life was organised around tribe, honour, hospitality, and the poetry that recorded a tribe's deeds. Two broad cultural regions matter: the conservative interior of Najd (around Riyadh), heartland of the Saud family, and the more cosmopolitan Hejaz of the Red Sea coast (Mecca, Medina, Jeddah), shaped for centuries by pilgrims and merchants from across the Muslim world.

The birth of Islam

This is the peninsula's world-changing chapter. Around 610 CE, in Mecca, the Prophet Muhammad began preaching the message of Islam: submission to one God. Facing hostility, he and his followers moved to Medina in 622 (an event, the Hijra, that starts the Islamic calendar). From Medina the new community grew, and within a few years most of Arabia had accepted Islam. After Muhammad's death in 632, the early caliphs led the explosive expansion described in the background chapter.

Important nuance: the political center of the Islamic world quickly moved away from Arabia, to Damascus and then Baghdad. Arabia remained the spiritual heartland because of Mecca and Medina, but for most of the next thousand years it was a religious destination rather than a center of power, often loosely under Ottoman authority.

The Saud-Wahhabi pact and the making of the kingdom

Modern Saudi Arabia grows from a single alliance made in 1744. A reformist preacher, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, called for a return to what he saw as the pure, original Islam, stripped of later practices he considered idolatry. He allied with a local ruler, Muhammad ibn Saud. The deal was simple and durable: the Saud family would provide political and military leadership, and the Wahhabi religious establishment would provide legitimacy and law. That partnership between throne and pulpit is still the backbone of the kingdom.

This first Saudi state expanded and alarmed the Ottomans, who sent their powerful Egyptian viceroy, Muhammad Ali, to crush it in the early 1800s. A second Saudi state rose and fell too. The third and lasting one was built in the early 20th century by Abdulaziz Ibn Saud, who recaptured Riyadh in 1902 and, over thirty years, conquered and unified most of the peninsula, including taking the holy cities of the Hejaz from the rival Hashemite family in 1925. In 1932 he proclaimed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Don't be confused: the Saud family and the Hashemites were rivals. The Hashemites of Mecca, who led the WWI Arab Revolt and now rule Jordan, lost Arabia to Ibn Saud in the 1920s. So the family running Jordan today once ruled Mecca, until the Saudis took it.

Oil changes everything

In 1938, vast oil reserves were discovered. After World War II, a defining bargain took shape, sealed at a 1945 meeting between Ibn Saud and US President Roosevelt: a close partnership with the United States, in which America got reliable oil and Saudi Arabia got security guarantees. Oil wealth, channeled through the state company Aramco, transformed a poor desert kingdom into one of the richest and most influential states in the world, the central player in the OPEC oil cartel and a financial heavyweight across the Muslim world.

The kingdom used some of that wealth to spread its strict Wahhabi/Salafi form of Islam abroad, funding mosques and schools internationally, a policy with long consequences for global Islam that the country has more recently pulled back from.

Key conflicts and alliances, in detail

Saudi Arabia rarely fights directly, but it has been central to the region's alignments:

• 1990 to 1991, the Gulf War. After Iraq's Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait, Saudi Arabia hosted a huge US-led coalition to reverse it. The kingdom and the West were allied against Iraq. The presence of Western, non-Muslim troops near the holy cities enraged radicals, most famously the Saudi-born Osama bin Laden, planting seeds of al-Qaeda's later turn against both the US and the Saudi monarchy.
• 2001. Fifteen of the nineteen September 11 hijackers were Saudi citizens, as was bin Laden, straining the US relationship and prompting hard questions about the export of extremism.
• Saudi Arabia vs Iran (the central modern rivalry). Since Iran's 1979 revolution, Sunni-led, Arab, US-aligned Saudi Arabia and Shia-led, Persian, anti-US Iran have competed for regional leadership. They rarely clash directly; instead they back opposite sides in Yemen (Saudis vs Iran-aligned Houthis), Syria (Saudis backed some rebels, Iran backed Assad), and Lebanon (Saudis vs Iran's Hezbollah).
• 2018, the Khashoggi killing. Saudi agents killed the dissident journalist Jamal Khashoggi in the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, drawing global condemnation and briefly isolating the crown prince.
• 2023, détente. In a China-brokered deal, Saudi Arabia restored relations with Iran, signalling a turn toward de-escalation, and it has weighed possible normalisation with Israel, talks complicated by the Gaza war.

How people lived: daily life and lifestyle

Saudi society blends deep Bedouin and tribal heritage with one of the world's fastest-modernising economies. Family and tribe remain central; the majlis, a sitting room where men gather to talk, settle matters, and receive guests, is a core institution, and hospitality is a serious value, expressed above all in the ritual of serving cardamom-scented Arabic coffee (qahwa) with dates. Heritage pastimes endure and are prized: falconry, camel husbandry and racing, and horse breeding.

Religion structures the calendar and the day: the five daily prayers, the fasting month of Ramadan, and the rhythms around the hajj and umrah pilgrimages that bring millions of visitors to Mecca and Medina. Traditional dress is the white thobe and headscarf (ghutra) for men and the black abaya for women, though dress rules have relaxed. For decades public life was tightly restricted, with no cinemas and strict gender separation enforced by the religious police; since around 2017 much of this has loosened, with cinemas, concerts, mixed entertainment, women driving, and a booming domestic tourism and events scene. Daily life differs by region: cosmopolitan Jeddah on the coast has long been more relaxed than conservative Riyadh in the interior.

Music, poetry, and the arts

Saudi culture is, above all, a culture of the spoken and sung word. Nabati poetry, classical Bedouin Arabic verse, is enormously popular, with televised poetry contests drawing huge audiences and big prizes. The national folk dance is the ardah, a stirring sword dance performed in rows to drums and chanted poetry, often at national celebrations. Regional folk music includes the mizmar (a reed instrument) and Hejazi song traditions shaped by the pilgrim cultures of the Red Sea. After the recent opening, a modern entertainment and arts scene, concerts, film, and festivals, has grown quickly.

Notable people

• Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th-century reformer behind Wahhabism.
• Abdulaziz Ibn Saud, founder of the modern kingdom.
• King Faisal (ruled 1964 to 1975), a modernising and influential monarch assassinated by a nephew.
• Mohammed bin Salman (MBS), the powerful crown prince driving the current transformation.

Religion, coexistence, and minorities

Saudi Arabia is officially Sunni Muslim of the Wahhabi/Salafi tradition, and Islam is woven into the state and law. As custodian of Mecca and Medina and host of the annual hajj, it holds a special standing among the world's Muslims.

Coexistence with other faiths has historically been narrow inside the kingdom. Public practice of any religion other than Islam is not permitted, and there are no churches or temples, though the recent reforms have eased daily life for the millions of foreign workers (many of them Christian, Hindu, or of other faiths) who make up a large share of the population.

Minorities and their treatment:

• Shia Muslims form a significant minority, concentrated in the oil-rich Eastern Province, with the Ismaili community around Najran in the south. Saudi Shia have long reported discrimination in jobs, religious freedom, and political voice, and the community saw protests and a harsh crackdown during the 2011 to 2012 unrest. Their status is a real and sensitive fault line.
• Foreign workers, who do much of the country's labour, have faced criticism over the kafala sponsorship system, which has tied workers to employers and led to abuses; reforms have been promised and partly enacted.

Food: Saudi Arabia's own table

Saudi cuisine is its own tradition, built on rice, lamb and chicken, dates, and warm spices, with strong regional differences between Najd, the Hejaz, and the south.

• Kabsa, the national dish: spiced rice (with cardamom, cloves, saffron, dried lime) cooked with meat, often served from a shared platter.
• Mandi, meat and rice cooked in a pit oven, a beloved staple.
• Jareesh and marqoq, hearty Najdi dishes of crushed wheat and thin dough with meat and vegetables.
• Saleeg, a creamy Hejazi rice porridge with meat, and mutabbaq, a stuffed, pan-fried savoury pastry popular in the Hejaz.
• Dates in dozens of varieties, eaten daily and offered to every guest, and Arabic coffee spiced with cardamom, the centerpiece of hospitality.

Everyday life: relationships, family, and home

Family is the heart of Saudi life, and ties of extended family and tribe still carry real weight, especially in the interior. Traditionally, marriages were introduced and arranged through families, and a young man and woman would meet under family supervision. A core part of any marriage is the mahr, a dowry or gift the groom gives to the bride (it is hers to keep). Weddings are large, festive, and historically gender-separate, with men and women celebrating in different halls. These patterns still hold widely, but they are loosening: more people now choose their own partners with family blessing, and the strict gender separation of public life has eased a great deal since around 2017.

Children are raised within close, often large extended families, with grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins all part of daily life, and respect for elders is taught early and taken seriously. Religion is woven through the day for most people: the five daily prayers set the rhythm of time, and faith shapes the calendar, food, dress, and manners.

On animals: attitudes differ from many Western norms. Dogs are often viewed with some caution and, in conservative readings, as ritually unclean, so they are less commonly kept as indoor pets (working and hunting dogs, like salukis, are an exception), while cats are widely tolerated and liked, and the falcon holds a place of pride in the culture. Cleanliness is closely tied to faith: Muslims perform wudu, a ritual washing of the hands, face, arms, and feet, before prayer, and personal hygiene is treated as part of religious life.

School, work, and the economy

Schooling is free and widespread, and education is strongly valued; for decades the government has funded large numbers of students to study abroad on scholarships. Schools have traditionally been gender-separate. One thing visitors notice: the weekend is Friday and Saturday, with Friday the main day of communal prayer, so the working week runs Sunday to Thursday.

Work life pauses briefly for the daily prayers, when many shops and offices close for a short time. The public sector has long employed a large share of Saudi citizens, while a great deal of private-sector and manual work has been done by foreign workers from across Asia, Africa, and the Arab world, who make up a large part of the population.

The economy is built on oil. Saudi Arabia holds some of the world's largest reserves, its state company Aramco is one of the most valuable companies on earth, and the kingdom leads the OPEC group of oil exporters. This made it a high-income country. Because oil will not last forever, the government's Vision 2030 plan, driven by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, aims to diversify into tourism, technology, entertainment, mining, and finance, funded partly through the country's huge sovereign wealth fund.

Language, idioms, and words to know

The language is Arabic, the language of the Quran. Everyday speech uses dialects: broadly Najdi Arabic in the central interior around Riyadh and the Gulf, and Hejazi Arabic on the Red Sea coast around Jeddah and Mecca, which was shaped by centuries of pilgrims and merchants. Standard (formal) Arabic is used in writing, news, and religion.

A few real, well-known Arabic proverbs and their meanings:

• "Al-sabr miftah al-faraj": "Patience is the key to relief." Endurance leads to a way out.
• "Al-ittihad quwwa": "In unity there is strength."

Useful phrases (simple pronunciation in brackets):

• as-salamu alaykum (as-sa-LAM-u a-LAY-kum): "peace be upon you," the standard greeting; the reply is "wa alaykum as-salam."
• shukran (SHOOK-ran): "thank you."
• inshallah (in-SHAH-lah): "God willing." It is said when speaking of the future. It can mean a sincere hope that something happens, and at other times it is a soft, polite way of saying "we'll see" without a firm promise.

A famous saying often linked to Bedouin and broader Arab tradition captures the value of hospitality and kinship: "I against my brother, my brother and I against my cousin, my cousin and I against the stranger." It describes loyalty radiating outward from family to tribe.

Famous places to know

• Mecca and the Kaaba: Islam's holiest city and the cube-shaped shrine that Muslims worldwide face in prayer; destination of the hajj pilgrimage.
• Medina: the city the Prophet Muhammad moved to in 622, home to his mosque and tomb, Islam's second holiest city.
• AlUla and Hegra (Mada'in Salih): a stunning desert region of sandstone cliffs, ancient rock art, and the carved Nabataean tombs of Hegra, the country's first UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Diriyah: the ancestral mud-brick home of the Al Saud near Riyadh, the birthplace of the first Saudi state, now restored as a heritage destination.
• Riyadh: the modern capital in the heart of Najd, a fast-growing city of business, government, and new museums and entertainment.
• Jeddah's old town (Al-Balad): the historic Red Sea port with distinctive coral-stone houses and carved wooden balconies, long the gateway for pilgrims.
• The Empty Quarter (Rub al-Khali): one of the largest sand deserts on earth, a vast sea of dunes spanning the south of the peninsula.

Fitting in: visiting, impressing people, and being a good citizen

A warm greeting matters, and hospitality is central: if you are offered Arabic coffee (qahwa) and dates, accepting them is part of the ritual and a sign of respect (a gentle shake of the small cup signals you have had enough). Dress modestly; women no longer must wear the black abaya but should still cover shoulders and knees, and men should avoid shorts and sleeveless tops in public. Eat and pass food with the right hand. Be mindful of prayer times, when shops briefly close, and be especially considerate during Ramadan, when eating, drinking, or smoking in public during daylight is avoided.

One firm point: Mecca and Medina are holy cities that non-Muslims may not enter. Respect this without exception. Ask before photographing people, especially women, and avoid photographing government or military sites.

To make a good impression, show genuine interest in Arabian heritage, poetry, falconry, and the country's rapid changes, be patient and unhurried, and keep conversation away from sensitive political and royal topics unless your host raises them.

Saudi Arabia has recently opened to tourism, and many visitors can now obtain an e-visa online. Rules have liberalized a great deal, but conservative norms remain in places, and they continue to change quickly, so check current, official guidance before you travel. This is general etiquette, not legal advice.

Suggested reading, news, and links

Books

• Madawi al-Rasheed, "A History of Saudi Arabia," a widely cited scholarly overview.
• For deeper reading, look for reputable histories of the kingdom, the Al Saud family, and the modern Vision 2030 era from established academic and journalistic publishers.

News

• International outlets such as the BBC and Reuters offer independent coverage.
• Saudi-based, English-language outlets like Arab News and the Saudi Gazette are useful for local perspective, but note they are state-linked and not fully independent.

Links

• The official tourism site, Visit Saudi (visitsaudi.com).
• The BBC country profile (bbc.com).
• Britannica's Saudi Arabia entry (britannica.com).

Today, and how to talk about it

Saudi Arabia in the mid-2020s is a society in fast, top-down transition: economically ambitious, socially loosening, regionally assertive, and still an absolute monarchy with tight limits on dissent.

If you talk with Saudis: religion and the holy cities are deeply meaningful, so treat them with respect. Many younger Saudis are proud of the rapid changes and happy to discuss them; politics and the royal family are more sensitive. Hospitality is a genuine value, accepting coffee and dates is part of the ritual, and showing real interest in Arabian heritage, poetry, and falconry is always welcome.

From the peninsula we move to the land at the center of the region's longest conflict. The next two chapters, Palestine and Israel, are best read together. 👉